Sea-level rise is a well-studied climate change phenomenon. General explanation is that thermal expansion of water and water from melting ice caps and glaciers are responsible for the rise. Global sea-level rose about 1.8 millimetres every year in the last decades. 1.1mm from the 1.8 is explained by melting ice and ocean expansion combined which leaves 0.7mm unexplained. New study in Nature Geoscience suggests an additional component which can help to solve this equation: human use of terrestrial water.

The researchers state that human impacts on terrestrial water storage could account for as much as 0.77 millimetres per year, or 42%, of the observed sea-level rise between 1961 and 2003. They used an integrated model to estimate sea-level rise caused by human use of terrestrial water (e.g. irrigation, industrial use, reservoir management). Most of the extracted subsurface water is not restocked because it either evaporates or flows into rivers ending up in seas eventually. They found that unsustainable groundwater use, artificial reservoir water impoundment, climate-driven changes in terrestrial water storage and the loss of water from closed basins are the main drivers of rising sea levels. From those drivers, unsustainable groundwater use represents the largest contribution. Even Taikan Oki, one of the researchers, was surprised by their results: “I didn’t expect that human extraction of groundwater would matter so much”.

Groundwater provides up to 80% of public water supplies for large areas of England. The current drought and hosepipe bans in England already drew attention to this precious resource and the need for its sustainable use. Findings of this new research underline this need for the sake of mitigating sea-level rise.

Yadu N. Pokhrel, Naota Hanasaki, Pat J-F. Yeh, Tomohito J. Yamada, Shinjiro Kanae & Taikan Oki 2012 Model estimates of sea-level change due to anthropogenic impacts on terrestrial water storage. Nature Geoscience. doi:10.1038/ngeo1476

The rising level of atmospheric CO2 has led to several studies focussing on changes in terrestrial and water ecosystems that might occur as a consequence. Ocean acidification, which is caused mainly by the increasing amount of CO2 dissolved in sea water, is at the forefront of marine research topics. However, most of the studies focus on calcifying organisms (e.g. corals, crustaceans) and only a few looked at fish and changes in fish behaviour so far.

A recently published paper in Functional Ecology, a British Ecological Society journal, is aiming to fill in a knowledge gap by examining the links between ocean acidification and changes to coral reef fish behaviour based on visual effects. Behavioural studies have demonstrated already that elevated CO2 levels can cause chemosensory and auditory impairment.

Fish use various information to avoid predators. Coral reef fish use auditory and chemosensory cues to decide where to settle. Once settled, chemical and visual information become more important. The study by Ferrari et al. tested the changes in visual risk assessment by exposing juvenile damselfish to the sight of a predator, a spiny chromis. The chromis was put into a watertight bag to avoid the damselfish receiving chemosensory signals.

The researchers found that damselfish showed reduced antipredator behaviour when exposed to 850 µatm CO2 which is equivalent to the CO2 level projected by the end of this century. However, no difference in behaviour was detected for smaller amounts of CO2 (440, 550, 700 µatm) in this study; previous studies showed altered chemosensory and auditory responses at 700 and 600 µatm, respectively. This led to an interesting conclusion that visual risk assessment cannot entirely compensate for the loss of chemosensory or auditory assessment.

Current projections indicate that atmospheric CO2 will reach 500 µatm by mid-century and 850 µatm by the end of this century. This study shows therefore that the latter concentration can alter the behaviour of coral reef fish and may eventually change the dynamics of predator-prey interactions and biodiversity of coral reefs.

The researchers highlight the need for longer term experiments to answer questions about adaptation and selection. However, they proved an extra point on why we should act immediately on reducing CO2 emissions.

Ferrari, M.C.O., McCormick, M.I., Munday, P.L., Meekan, M.G., Dixson, D.L., Lonnstedt, O. & Chivers, D.P. 2012 Effects of ocean acidification on visual risk assessment of coral reef fishes. Functional Ecology. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2011.01951.x

The original Open Access paper can be downloaded here.

The Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership (MCCIP) launched its latest Report Card on 8th May at the World Fisheries Congress in Edinburgh. It focuses on how climate change is affecting the fish and shellfish we find in our seas, providing both opportunities and threats, and what the social and economic consequences could be.

Key findings in the 2012 MCCIP Report Card include:
• There are clear changes in the depth, distribution, migration and spawning behaviours of fish – many of which can be related to warming sea temperatures.
• Cultivated fish and shellfish are both susceptible to climate change, although fish farming technologies offer good potential for adaptation.
• Controlled or closed fishing areas (a type of protected area) that can be adapted in response to climate change have the potential to help protect commercial and vulnerable fish stocks.
• Recreational sea fishing is an important socio-economic activity that could be positively affected by climate change, due to the increasing abundance of species that are of interest to anglers.
• Shifting distributions of fish have led to a series of international disagreements and will continue to have implications for fisheries management across international boundaries.

Cabinet Secretary for Rural Affairs and Environment Richard Lochhead said:
“Climate change is affecting us all and understanding the impact on the marine environment is hugely important. Fisheries and aquaculture are vital to our economy – worth over 1 billion – and clear science is critical to secure the future of our valuable food industries. That is why I welcome the collaborative work of the MCCIP – the report card provides significant and robust scientific data which will help inform future policies to tackle climate change.”

UK Minister for the Marine Environment, Richard Benyon, said:
“I would like to thank the scientists who have contributed towards this valuable report and believe we have come a long way in a short time in understanding the impacts of climate change on the marine environment.
“The truth is that climate change is having a big impact on distribution of fish stocks and this is going to present some significant challenges for policy-makers, fisheries managers and for fishing industry itself.
“The Government will develop a National Adaptation Plan in response to the Climate Change Risk Assessment in which issues affecting the marine environment will be addressed.”

The 12-page report card is available here.

The report card draws on four Open Access reviews published in Aquatic Conservation this week and available here.

Blog post by Dr Davy McCracken, Team Leader, Scottish Agricultural College.

Defra together with the Northern Ireland Executive, the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government launched the consultation on the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) in March. One and a half months are left to submit thoughts on the implementation of the Directive till the end of the consultation on 18th June.

The main goal of MSFD is to achieve and maintain Good Environmental Status (GES) of all EU seas by the end of the decade. GES means that marine ecosystems are protected, restored and their degradation is prevented while used sustainably. The Directive includes 11 descriptors of GES covering a wide-range of aspects from biodiversity through food webs to underwater noise.

Current consultation aims to draft an initial assessment of the state of the UK’s seas, customise general GES criteria to UK seas and propose more detailed measures and indicators of GES. There will be further consultations on measures and monitoring of achieving GES of UK marine environments.

Consultation materials and information on how to take part can be found on the Defra webpage.

A new project to develop a series of ‘Climate Change Impacts Report Cards’ for the terrestrial and freshwater environments has started under the Living With Environmental Change programme, supported by Defra and NERC.

These report cards will be accessible, high level summaries of the science, based on more detailed supporting papers, with thorough peer review of both the supporting papers and the report card itself. The audience includes policy makers, business and a wide range of other stakeholders, as well as the research community. The concept is based on the very successful report cards produced by the Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership for the marine environment.

Two cards are currently being developed, one on water issues and one on biodiversity. The development of the biodiversity card is being led by Mike Morecroft and Lydia Speakman at Natural England: if you are interested in getting involved, or would like to know more, please email Lydia.Speakman@naturalengland.org.uk.

A team of scientists, led by Enric Sala, a marine ecologist with the Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes in Spain, investigated rocky reefs around Mediterranean shores and the impact of protection level on the health of these marine ecosystems.

In total, 32 sites were surveyed from both marine protected areas and unprotected areas across the Mediterranean. The results showed “remarkable variation in the structure of rocky reef ecosystems” with three distinct groups: (1) high fish and algal abundance, (2) lower fish abundance but high algal abundance, and (3) lower fish abundance and extensive barrens.

In conclusion the team describe protection level and primary production as the only variables significantly correlated with community biomass. “Fish biomass was significantly larger in well-enforced no-take marine reserves, but there were no significant differences between multi-use marine protected areas (which allow some fishing) and open access areas at the regional scale”.

A major insight from the study is that, at least in the Mediterranean, partially protected marine protected areas are not effective in restoring fish populations.

Original source paper

Figures due to be released by the Marine Stewardship Council show that the number of fish and seafood products in the UK certified as ’sustainable’ has increased by 41% since 2010.

What fisheries minister Richard Benyon has described as a ’seismic shift’ in people’s attitudes towards the fish they eat has led to a significant increase in consumer demand for seafood products bearing the MSC logo. This certification ensures that products have come from sustainable fish stocks where fishing rates are controlled below the rate of replenishment so the population is not depleted. This move towards more sustainable fish consumption is welcome as currently, 85% of fish stocks globally are exploited to their maximum capacity or overfished.

Upcoming reforms of the EU common fisheries policy are also hoped to contribute to the protection of dwindling fish populations by changing EU fishing practices.

A study due to be published in Nature Climate Change journal (released to press) suggests that the current rate of ocean acidification, caused by increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, could be up to two orders of magnitude greater than that at the end of the last Ice Age. This has serious implications for ocean ecology, contributing to the ‘bleaching’ of coral reefs as well as apparent physiochemical effects on fish.

However, despite the severity of its potential impact, ocean acidication is relatively poorly covered in international policy. It had not yet emerged as an issue when the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was established in 1992 and, consequently, is absent from its contents. Meanwhile most treaties concerning the ocean focus on matters such as shipping access, fisheries and localised pollution.

The upcoming Rio+20 conference could provide an important platform to redress this policy gap and actors including Unesco’s International Oceanographic Commission are pushing for ocean acidification to be made a priority issue on the agenda. The first draft of the conference agenda – the ‘zero draft’ – is available to view online.

Text based on original article by Richard Black, Environment Correspondent for the BBC

Plans have been unveiled today for 127 Marine Conservation Zones in England’s waters, enacting a requirement of the 2009 Marine and Coastal Access Act. Four regional projects have engaged stakeholders from local communities, industry and the Government over the past two years in order to develop these proposals, which now go forward to an independent panel for assessment.

The ultimate aim of the four regional projects is to create an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas which will protect scarce species, geological sites and significant heritage sites, whilst also safeguarding species representative of biodiversity in England. The final network will cover 37,000 sq km, or almost a quarter of England’s waters.

The Marine Protected Area Science Advisory Panel will examine the proposals and in October will provide an assessment of the extent to which the resulting composite network of MCZs will achieve the goal of ecological coherence. The Government will then make a final decision on the final location of sites in 2012.

The Guardian is reporting this morning that although no decision has yet been made about the activities which will be allowed or prohibited within each site, it is likely that only 20 sites will receive a high degree of protection, meaning that all extractive or damaging activities will be prohibited. However, the article also suggests that half of the sites designated will include highly protected areas within them.

Meanwhile, Dogger Bank has become the largest marine protected area in Europe after the Government put this forward to the European Commission for consideration the site’s subsequent designation as a ‘candidate Special Protected Area’. The site is the largest sandbank in UK waters and is home to significant populations of sand eels, which provide a food resource for seabirds, cetaceans and other commercial fish species, such as cod. The UK site links up with Special Protected Areas already designated in German and Dutch waters.

Original articles:
BBC News, Marine Protection Bids Unveiled (Richard Black)
Guardian, 127 areas to be proposed as English marine conservation zones (John Vidal)

Scottish government has announched that eight surveys covering 2,200 square miles will be conducted in Scottish waters in order to collect information on its marine biodiversity. The surveys are in collaboration with Marine Scotland and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and will utilise video and acoustic recordings to create underwater maps and improve understanding of marine species and habitats found in Scotland.

The findings will be used to inform future plans for the designation of effective Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s), as well as provide further information on fish stocks and potential sites for renewable energy.

Richard Lochhead MSP Cabinet Secretary for Rural Affairs and the Environment said of the new study; “Scotland’s seas provide rich marine habitats and a stunning array of biodiversity. Our waters are home to some of the world’s most precious wildlife, therefore it’s critical that we further our knowledge as much as we can”.