A recently published review paper in Nature draws attention to the dangers of globalisation and international trade which facilitate spreading of fungal diseases. The authors collected data from all over the world and showed that fungal infections had increased, caused extinction of several species and even contributed to climate change in the last few decades. They claim that immediate action is needed to prevent devastating impacts of the spreading of fungal diseases mainly by more research and better implementation of science into policy and practice.

The scientists looked at the problem holistically and pointed out some unusual links. They state for example that fungal diseases can contribute to climate change through killing or damaging trees that otherwise would have absorbed significant amount of CO2. They also highlight that biodiversity loss is accelerated by fungal pathogens. Due to small population effects and decreased ecosystem diversity, a fungal disease can wipe out entire species as it is seen in the case of amphibians. In case of animal species, fungal infections already account for 72% of infection-related extinctions which is more than viral and bacterial caused extinctions altogether.

Fungal pathogens can even facilitate invaders’ success. In the well known case of the North American signal crayfish in the UK a fungus-like disease (Crayfish Plague) helps the invader. The signal crayfish is tolerant to the infection which is lethal to the indigenous white-clawed crayfish. By spreading the disease around and wiping out the native crayfish the invader can occupy more and more habitats.

Food security is also in danger. Fungal infections of our five main food crops (rice, wheat, maize, potatoes and soybeans) are already causing serious problems and destroy a significant amount of the yield each year. Newly emerging fungal diseases can affect agriculture directly while new pathogens affecting animals can also have an indirect effect on crop production. Estimations suggest that White Nose Syndrome which decreases bat populations in North America can cause huge extra costs ($3.7 billion) to agriculture through the lack of bat control on insect pests.

The authors point out that human behaviour (international travel and trade) is the major cause of the recently recognised expansion of fungal diseases. Therefore, they call for stronger international biosecurity by strengthening international trade regulations, quarantining more rigorously and tackling illegal trade more effectively through trade control organisations. They also emphasise that integrated research on identifying, monitoring and mitigating the impacts of these diseases is much needed to get ahead of fungal epidemics.

For more on the subject, listen to the latest Planet Earth Online podcast.

The original paper: MC Fisher et al. Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature, 12 April 2012. DOI 10.1038/nature10947

The persistent dry weather which has led to the current hosepipe ban in South East England is also threatening the future of one of Britain’s rarest amphibians, the natterjack toad.

With fewer than 50 breeding populations remaining in mainland Britain, the natterjack is highly vulnerable to the drying-out of the shallow coastal dune slacks it relies on as breeding habitat. Low rainfall for the past two years means that these wet hollows have begun disappearing before natterjack tadpoles have metamorphosed into toads, causing a significant drop in breeding success.

In response, Natural England has introduced a programme of water saving techniques and pond management across a number of its National Nature Reserves (NNRs), which support a large proportion of the remaining natterjack population. For example, at Saltfleetby Theddlethorpe Dunes NNR in Lincolnshire, staff have created captive pools in which water levels are controlled to allow tadpoles to mature before being they are allowed to escape into the surrounding dunes. Dr Pete Brotherton, Natural England’s Head of Biodiversity is optimistic about the success of the scheme saying ‘we are confident that the toad can bounce back if conditions prove wetter next year’.

Further afield, targeted conservation interventions to protect amphibians are also taking place in Central America. In this region, in addition to the threat of a changing climate, species of frog are being severely impacted by the spread of ‘chytrid’ – a virulent fungal disease. In some regions, the fungus is spreading at a rate of around 20 miles a year and can reduce frog populations by up to 90%. In response, scientists have started a programme of collecting healthy frogs from their forest habitats and transporting them to specially designed ‘arks’ to be held until ongoing research provides a solution to eradicate the fungus. Such a seemingly drastic response is partly due to the considerable potential value of amphibian diversity for human health. For example, a species of tree frog from Australia has been found to produce compounds that destroy HIV cells, whilst the phantasmal poison frog produces a painkiller 200 times more powerful than morphine. Already, the gastric-brooding frog – thought to offer a possible cure for peptic ulcers – has gone extinct.

In order to prevent the loss of further amphibian species with significant human, ecological and intrinsic value, such conservation efforts may need to be become more widely applied in the future.

For more on the natterjack toad, see Natural England’s press release on the subject. Further detail on amphibian conservation and the chytrid fungus can be found on the BBC news website.

Over the past 40 years the EU has set up a relatively comprehensive and dense body of environmental legislation which, although far from perfect, is certainly a success story. Times are changing and increasing complexity of inter-linkages between policies on climate change, biodiversity and natural resources, coupled with financial and political volatility mean EU policy is likely to move in a new direction in the coming decade. That is the suggestion made by the recent report produced by the Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP) and commissioned by the All Party Parliamentary Environment Group (APPEG). Here are some of the key areas of EU environmental policy that the IEEP has identified as being high on the agenda over the next few years.

Climate Change and Energy

Despite being among some of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the world, EU member states are also among the most active in seeking to address the issue. The Kyoto Protocol commits the EU-15 to reducing average GHG emissions by 8 per cent below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. In 2009 the EU implemented the 20-20-20 target, which aims to reduce GHG emission by 20 per cent, increase the share of renewable energy by 20 per cent and reduce energy consumption by 20 per cent, all by the year 2020. Progress towards these targets is mixed with the steady rise in the share of renewable energy sources in stark contrast to the energy saving estimates. A number of studies have demonstrated that more ambitious climate mitigation polices are needed in Europe which could modernise the EU economy and infrastructure, create jobs and enhance competitiveness in fast growing global markets for low-carbon goods and services.

Transport

Emissions from transport are a major source of the EU’s GHG emissions, in 2010 it accounted for more than a fifth of GHG emissions from the EU. Increasing demand has offset potential gains from improvements in the energy efficiency of new vehicles. Further impacts of transport include problems with poor air quality, noise and transport infrastructure also puts huge pressure on Europe’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Currently there is a major effort to promote the use of biofuels and accelerate the process of electrifying road vehicles, however, many challenges exist in ensuring that these alternative fuels and energy sources are sustainable and are in fact low carbon.

Water

The EU environmental policies regarding water pollution have improved freshwater quality for many of its member states, including the UK. There are, however, growing problems in relation to water quantity, in particular in the south of Europe. EU water policy provides a comprehensive legislative framework that aims to address issues related to water quality as well as water demand and availability. 2012 will be an important year for EU water policy with the current “fitness-check” being undertaken by the Commission.

Biodiversity

Despite the establishment of a European network of protected areas (Natura 2000) and wide ranging regulatory framework, biodiversity continues to decline. 2010 targets of halting biodiversity loss within the EU were not met, mainly due to continuing increases in key pressures such as intensification of agriculture and habitat fragmentation. Over the last few years there has been increasing recognition of the economic value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the policy process. A new EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 was produced in 2011 which sets out six main targets relating to: full implementation of the birds and habitats Directives, maintaining and restoring ecosystems and their services, increasing the contribution of agriculture and forestry to maintaining and enhancing biodiversity, ensuring the sustainable use of fisheries resources, combating invasive alien species and helping to avert global biodiversity loss.

A conference of more than 100 scientists and decision makers at the University of Copenhagen last week concluded that “the biodiversity crisis…is probably a greater threat than climate change to the stability and prosperous future of mankind on Earth”.

However, the talks signal a positive step towards addressing this pressing global issue as attendees discussed the future direction of the recently formed Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), created to coordinate international efforts to address the biodiversity crisis. IPBES is designed to be a global-scale interface between the scientific community and policy-makers, collecting and synthesising scientific research in order to strengthen its contribution to policy making.

Text adapted from original article at physorg.com

A fusion of economics and ecology is required to properly measure and capture the value of biodiversity. That was the message of an event at Parliament earlier today organised by Biodiversity, the UK all party parliamentary group, chaired by Barry Gardiner MP, and attended by the BES Policy Team.

Lord Deben, president of GLOBE International, began proceedings emphasising the need for an optimistic outlook by ecologists with regards to biodiversity, saying “misery never convinces” and that we should “celebrate 30 years of growing awareness for environmental issues”. Lord Deben went on to highlight the importance of establishing a method for the valuation of natural capital as quickly as possible so that biodiversity impoverishment “can no longer be avoided on the political agenda”.

Professor David Hill of the Environment Bank went on to discuss the need for moving away from seeing the environment as a “charitable exercise”, and to support the establishment of policies that enable financial markets to properly value ecosystems. Professor Hill echoed Lord Deben’s calls for action stating “don’t start, don’t go”.

Dr Tim Jenkins, director of the Great Transition Initiative suggested that well-being and not wealth needs to be the measure of progress within society and that the value of natural capital may be at a critical threshold. Dr Giles Atkinson, of the London School of Economics, agreed that wealth should be measured in more depth than from a purely financial point of view and joked that economists were “worried about adding together, literally, apples and oranges”.

Dr Roddy Farley of the Scottish Natural Heritage presented cause for optimism in his assessment that Scottish natural capital was on the rise but reinstated the need for a transparent, readily available measurement for the value of biodiversity which can be used on policy time frames.

The final speaker was Pandev Sukhdev, author of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, who highlighted the problem of the economic invisibility of nature and how this can result in short term private profits but far more damaging long term public losses. He sited an example of shrimp farms in south Thailand where the initial short-term profit was grossly out weighed by the long-term cost when natural capital losses were factored in.

Findings published in the journal Biological Conservation suggest habitat fragmentation and climate change are threatening seed dispersal around the globe.

Dr Prasad, who led the international team of scientists, found that factors identified as the main contributors to biodiversity loss, such as habitat fragmentation, invasive species and climate change, were altering seed dispersal patterns.

“If there are species that cannot adapt to the new conditions, then they have to shift their range. However, today, they live in a very fragmented world so the dispersal network has been disrupted by the human-modified landscape”

The study concluded “We recommend that the conservation status of functionally unique dispersers be revised and that the conservation target for key seed dispersers should be a population size that maintains their ecological function, rather than merely the minimum viable population.

The creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) was one of the most significant actions to come out of the 10th Conference Of Parties to the Convention of Biological Diversity held in Nagoya, Japan. The IPBES is a panel based in part on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). It aims to amalgamate evidence for future biodiversity policy, and is expected to become a focal point for public and media awareness of biodiversity issues.

Since its beginnings a number of meetings have been held including a key workshop between Defra and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) in July 2011. The workshop explored how best to engage government with science-policy and coordinate UK Government, scientists, NGO’s and business.

The BES is also holding a session on the IPBES at the BES Annual Meting in Sheffield entitled ‘Where next for the UK National Ecosystem Assessment and IPBES?’ on Tuesday 13th September at 11.15am. To attend the Annual Meeting and book a place at the session visit the BES website.

Such events are in preparation for the first international plenary of the IPBES due to be held in Nairobi, Kenya in October 2011. At the plenary government representatives will consider the draft principles and procedures governing the work of IPBES, the initial elements of the work program, processes for nomination and selection of host institution(s) and host country for the platform.

Scottish government has announched that eight surveys covering 2,200 square miles will be conducted in Scottish waters in order to collect information on its marine biodiversity. The surveys are in collaboration with Marine Scotland and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and will utilise video and acoustic recordings to create underwater maps and improve understanding of marine species and habitats found in Scotland.

The findings will be used to inform future plans for the designation of effective Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s), as well as provide further information on fish stocks and potential sites for renewable energy.

Richard Lochhead MSP Cabinet Secretary for Rural Affairs and the Environment said of the new study; “Scotland’s seas provide rich marine habitats and a stunning array of biodiversity. Our waters are home to some of the world’s most precious wildlife, therefore it’s critical that we further our knowledge as much as we can”.

On the 25th July 2011 the draft National Planning Policy Framework was published by Government. After the release of the Natural Environment White Paper in June this year conservation organisations have been highly anticipating the publication of the Framework, which represents the next step in terms of implementing the declarations of the White Paper.

The document, which integrates the Government’s economic, environmental and social planning policies for England, was issued alongside a statement from the Environment Secretary, Caroline Spelman, who said “It will give local communities the power to protect green spaces that mean so much to them, while still giving the highest protection to our treasured landscapes such as national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It will also ensure that development needed to grow the economy is carried out in a sustainable way.”

The Government’s objective as stated in the Framework is that planning should help to deliver a healthy natural environment for the benefit of everyone and safe places which promote wellbeing. To achieve this objective, the document states that the planning system should aim to conserve and enhance the natural and local environment by protecting valued landscapes, minimise impacts on biodiversity and provide net gains where possible. The report also makes the statement that planning permission should be refused if significant harm resulting from a development cannot be avoided, adequately mitigated, or as a last resort, compensated for.

The Framework goes on to support the Lawton Review and the White Paper with its goals to minimise impacts on biodiversity by stating that planning policy should take into account the need to plan for biodiversity at a landscape-scale as well as identify and map components of the local ecological networks, including international, national and local sites. In line with EU targets the Framework states that planning will promote the preservation, restoration and re-creation of priority habitats, ecological networks and the recovery of priority species populations.

In terms of climate change the Government’s objective is that planning should fully support the transition to a low carbon economy in a changing climate, taking full account of flood risk and coastal change. To achieve this objective, the planning system should aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, support energy efficiency improvements to existing buildings, deliver renewable and low-carbon energy infrastructure and provide resilience to impacts arising from climate change.

The Planning Framework is now open for consultation until the 17th of October 2011 and followed by a series of events taking place across the UK. Read the full document here.

England’s Biodiversity Strategy is due to be released this month, outlining how England will meet its international environmental commitments. It is expected to detail future plans for the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) across the country in order to meet agreed biodiversity targets.

The new Biodiversity Strategy follows the 2010 Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting held in Nagoya, Japan. At which, the parties agreed on a new international framework – the Strategic Plan, to protect and enhance biodiversity and ecosystems, with deals labeled ‘historic’ by the Natural Environment White Paper.

Japans negotiations also unveiled a new global vision; that ‘by 2050, biodiversity will be valued, conserved, restored and widely used maintaining ecosystem service, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people’. The conference set an additional short term mission target; to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2020. In order to achieve this, parties agreed on 20 ambitious but realistic targets, and 5 strategic goals. These included the sustainable management of all future fish stocks, ensuring biodiversity conservation on land managed for forestry and agriculture, and commitments to restore 15% of degraded ecosystems by 2020.

The Strategic Plan emphasized the need for urgent and appropriate action, effective policy and evidence based decision making, requesting that all member states develop a strategy in line with the plans targets in order to proceed. England’s Biodiversity Strategy is expected this month, followed shortly by those submitted by the devolved administrations.